ELECTRONICS
Matter is made up of molecules which consists of atoms. According to Bohr’s theory, “the atom consists of positively charged nucleus and a number of negatively charged electrons which revolve round the nucleus in various orbits”. When an electron is raised from a lower state to a higher state, it is said to be excited. While exciting, if the electron is completely removed from the nucleus, the atom is said to be ionized. So, the process of raising the atom from normal state to this ionized state is called as ionization.
According to Bohr’s model, an electron is said to be moved in a particular Orbit, whereas according to quantum mechanics, an electron is said to be somewhere in free space of the atom, called as Orbital. This theory of quantum mechanics was proven to be right. Hence, a three dimensional boundary where an electron is probable to found is called as Atomic Orbital.
Quantum Numbers
Each orbital, where an electron moves, differs in its energy and shape. The energy levels of orbitals can be represented using discrete set of integrals and half-integrals known as quantum numbers. There are four quantum numbers used to define a wave function.
Principal Quantum number
The first quantum number that describes an electron is the Principal quantum number. Its symbol is n. It specifies the size or order energylevel of the number. As the value of n increases, the average distance from electron to nucleus also increases, as well, the energy of the electron also increases. The main energy level can be understood as a shell
Basic Electronics - tutorials point
BASIC TEST AND MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
HOW ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS WORK
HOW TO TEST ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS WITH A MULTIMETER
ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Basic Electronic Components
The most common way is to classify them in to three types:
1)Active Electronic Components,
2)Passive Electronic Components and
3)Electromechanical Components.
In designing an electronic circuit following are taken into consideration:
- Basic electronic components: capacitors, resistors, diodes, transistors, etc.
- Power sources: Signal generators and DC power supplies.
- Measurement and analysis instruments: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO), multimeters, etc.
Active Components
These components are used to amplify electrical signals to generate electric power. The functioning of these components can be done like an AC circuit within electronic devices to protect from voltage and enhanced power. An active component executes its functions because it is power-driven through an electricity source. All these components require some energy source that is normally removed from a DC circuit. Any quality type of active component will include an oscillator, IC (integrated circuit) & transistor.
Passive Components
These types of components cannot use mesh energy into the electronic circuit because they don’t rely on a power source, excluding what is accessible from the AC circuit they are allied to. As a result, they cannot amplify, although they can increase a current otherwise voltage or current. These components mainly include two-terminals like resistors, inductors, transformers & capacitors.
Electromechanical Components
These components use an electrical signal to make some mechanical changes like rotating a motor. Generally, these components use electrical current to form a magnetic field so that physical movement can be caused. Different types of switches and relays are applicable in these kinds of components. The devices which have the process of electrical as well as mechanical are electromechanical devices. An electromechanical component is operated manually to generate electrical output through the mechanical movement.
ACTIVE ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
Strictly speaking, an Active Component is a device that acts as a source of energy, like a battery. But the definition of Active Components differs according to a few electronic engineers who perform circuit analysis. Active components are defined as the devices that depend on energy source and can introduce power into a circuit.
For example consider the diode, which is an active component. When the diode is connected to the circuit and energy source is applied, it immediately does not conduct the electrons. It starts conducting only when its threshold value is reached. Thus it depends on the energy source for its working. Hence it is an active component.
Active Electronic Components can control the flow of electrons through them. Some of the commonly used Active Components are Transistors, Semiconductors(Diodes), ICs (Integrated Circuits), Power Sources (Batteries, AC and DC Power Supplies), etc.
Diodes
A diode is a non-linear semiconductor device, that allows the flow of current in one direction. A Diode is a two – terminal device and the two terminals are Anode and Cathode respectively. The following is the symbol of a Diode.
There are again a variety of components that come under the category of Diodes. They are PN Junction Diode, Light Emitting Diode (LED), Zener Diode, Schottky Diode, Photodiode, and DIAC.
Table for different types of diodes
Diode |
Application |
GUNN Diode |
Used in producing microwave signals |
Laser Diode |
Used in fiber optic communications, barcode readers ,CD/DVD drives. |
Light emitting diode |
Using lightening applications like aviation lightening, traffic signals, camera flashes. |
Photodiode |
Used as high voltage rectifier, photo detector, radio frequency switch. |
Step recovery Diode |
Used for generation and shaping of high frequency pulses. |
Tunnel Diode |
Used in microwave applications |
Varactor diode |
Mostly used in radio frequency applications. |
Zener Diode |
Mostly used as voltage reference diodes |
Transistors
It is a semiconductor device that can be used to either switch electrical power or amplify electronic signals.
A Transistor is a 3 terminal device that can be either a current controlled device or a voltage controlled device.Differenttypes of transistors exists. Basically they are classified as
1) Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT) and
2) Field Effect Transistors (FET).
They can be further classified
More information on Transistors.
Integrated Circuits (ICs)
An Integrated Circuit or an IC is an integration or incorporation of several electronic components (mainly transistors) on a single device (or chip) made up of a semiconductor material (usually Silicon).
Almost all electronic devices like TVs, Mobile Phones, Laptops, Audio Players, Routers, etc. have Integrated Circuit in them.
ICs are again divided into Analog ICs and Digital ICs.
· Analog ICs work on Analog Signals like Temperature, Audio, etc. which are continuously varying in nature.
· Digital ICs on the other hand, work on Discrete Signals i.e. zero volts and a non-zero volts (like 5V or 3.3V) that are represented as Binary 0 and 1.
The commonly used IC in basic electronic circuits are Op – Amps (Operational Amplifiers) like LM741, Timers like NE555, Microcontrollers like AT89S52, Counters like CD4017 and Motor Drivers like L293D.
Vacuum Tubes
Before the invention of transistor vacuum tubes were used in place of transistors. This is defined as an electron tube that controls the flow of electrons in vacuum. CRT screens used in old TVs and computer monitors are best examples for vacuum tubes.
Display Devices
LCD: A liquid crystal display (LCD) is a flat display technology, which is mostly used in applications like computer monitors, cell phone displays, calculators, etc. This technology uses two polarized filters and electrodes to selectively disable or enable the light to pass from reflective backing to the eyes of the viewer. Please refer to this link to Know more about LCD
The display like 16X2 LCD is the most frequently used module in electrical as well as electronic circuits. This kind of display includes 2 rows and 16 columns so it is known as an alphanumeric display. This kind of display is used to show the highest of 32 characters. Please refer to this link to know more about 16 X 2 LCD
CRT
Cathode ray tube display technology is mostly used in televisions and computer screens that work on the movement of an electron beam back and forth on the back of the screen. This tube is an elongated vacuum tube in which the flattened surface has external components as an electron gun, electron beam, and a phosphorescent screen. Please refer to this link to Know more about cathode-ray tube
Display Devices
16 x 2 LCD
The most commonly used display module in electronic circuits is an LCD Display and in particular, a 16 x 2 LCD Display. It is an alphanumeric display with two rows and 16 columns and can display a maximum of 32 characters.
7 – Segment Display
Another common display module is the Seven Segment Display. It can be used to display decimal numerals in different electronic devices like clocks, meters, calculators, public information systems, etc.
PASSIVE COMPONENTS
Passive Components cannot control the flow of current through them i.e. they cannot introduce energy in to the circuit but can increase or decrease voltage and current.
These components don’t depend on the energy source for their operation.Two terminal components like Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors and transformers are examples of Passive Components.
Resistors
The basic of all electronic components are the Resistors. It is a passive electronic components that introduces electrical resistance in to the circuit. Using resistors, we can reduce the current, divide voltages, setup biasing of transistors (or other active elements), etc.
A resistor is a two-terminal passive electronics component, used to oppose or limit the current. Resistor works based on the principle of Ohm’s law which states that “voltage applied across the terminals of a resistor is directly proportional to the current flowing through it”
V=IR
The units of the resistance are ohms
Where R is the constant called resistance
The mathematical representation of Ohm’s Law is I = V/R.
Resistors are further classified based on the following specifications such as the power rating, type of material used, and resistance value. These resistor types are used for different applications.
Ohm’s Law defines the behavior of a resistor which states that the current through a conductor is directly proportional to the voltage across the conductor. The proportionality constant is called as Resistance.
Read: Introduction To Resistors.
Different types of resistors can be defined according to their function,size,characteristicsetc.Resistors are divided in to Fixed Resistors and Variable Resistors.
· Fixed Resistors, as the name suggests, have a fixed resistance and its resistance doesn’t change due to external parameters.
· Variable Resistors, on the other hand, have a variable resistance that can either be changed manually or controlled by external factors like Light Dependent Resistor (LDR) or Thermistor.
Fixed Resistors
This type of resistor is used to set the right conditions in an electronic circuit. The values of resistance in fixed resistors are determined during the design phase of the circuit, based on this there is no need to adjust the circuit.
Variable Resistors
A device that is used to change the resistance according to our requirements in an electronic circuit is known as a variable resistor. These resistors comprise a fixed resistor element and a slider that taps on to the resistor element. Variable resistors are commonly used as a three-terminal device for calibration of the device. Please refer to this link to know more Know more about resistors
Capacitors
The second important passive components is a capacitor, a device that stores energy in the form of electric field. Most capacitors consists of two conducting plates that are separated by a dielectric material.
If Q is the charge on any one of the conductor plates and V is the voltage between them, then the Capacitance C of the Capacitor is C = Q/V.
In electronics circuits, a capacitor is mainly used to block DC Current and allow AC Current. The other applications of capacitors are filters, timing circuits, power supplies and energy storing elements.
There are many types of Capacitors like Polarized, Non – Polarized, Ceramic, Film, Electrolytic, Super Capacitors etc.
Read Introduction To Capacitors.
Inductors
If capacitors store energy in the form of electric field, then inductors are devices that store energy in the form of Magnetic Field. Inductor is nothing but a wire that is wound in the form of a coil.
An inductor is also referred to as an AC resistor which stores electrical energy in the form of magnetic energy. It resists the changes in the current and the standard unit of inductance is Henry. The capability of producing magnetic lines is referred to as inductance.
The inductance of the inductor is given as L= (µ.K.N2.S)/I.
Where,
‘L’ is inductance,
‘µ’ is Magnetic permeability,
‘K’ is a magnetic coefficient,
‘S’ is the cross-section area of the coil,
‘N’ is the number of turns of the coils,
And ‘I’ is the length of the coil in the axial direction.
Other passive electronic components include different types of sensors, motors, antennas, memristors, etc. To reducing the complexity of this article few of the passive components are discussed above.
Inductor is widely used in AC equipment like filters, chokes, tuned circuits etc.
The core around which the coil is wound i.e. air, iron, ferrite etc. will determine the strength of the magnetic field. Inductors opposes the change in electric current through them and the changes in current will result in induction of voltage.
More on Inductors. about inductors
BASIC TEST AND MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
When it comes to designing electronic circuits, testing and measuring various parameters like current, voltage, frequency, resistance, capacitance, etc. is very important. Hence, the Test and Measurement Equipment like Oscilloscopes, Multimeters, Logic Analyzers, Function Generators (or Signal Generators) are often used regularly.
Oscilloscope
The most reliable Test Equipment for observing continuously varying signals is an Oscilloscope. With the help of an Oscilloscope, we can observe the changes in an electrical signal like voltage, over time.
Oscilloscopes are used in a wide range of field like Medical, Electronic, Automobile, Industrial and Telecommunication Applications.
Originally, Oscilloscopes are made up of Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) displays but nowadays, almost all Oscilloscopes are Digital Oscilloscopes with advanced features like storage and memory.
Multimeter
A multimeter is a combination of Voltmeter, Ammeter and Ohmmeter. They provide an easy way to measure different parameters of an electronic circuit like current, voltage etc.
Multimeters can measure values in both AC and DC. EarliesMultimeters are Analog and consists of a pointing needle. Modern Multimeters are Digital and are often called as Digital Multimeters or DMMs.
DMMs are available as handheld devices as well as bench devices. A Multimeter can be very handy in finding basic faults in a circuit.
Function Generator or Signal Generator
A Signal Generator, as the name suggests, generates a variety of signals for testing and troubleshooting electronic circuits. The most common types of signals are Triangular Wave, Sine Wave, Square Wave and Sawtooth Wave.
Along with a bench power supply and oscilloscope, a function generator is also an important piece of equipment when designing electronic circuits.
There are a lot more components like Transformers, Buttons, Switches, Connectors, etc. which we can explore as we move forward with a project.
POWER SOURCES
The different power sources used in the circuits are DC power supply and batteries.
DC Power Supply
In electronic circuits, the DC power supply is very essential which is used as one kind of power source. The major electronic components work with DC power supply because it is a consistent power source. Different power supplies used in the circuit to provide the supply are AC to DC, SMPS, linear regulators, etc. A wall adapter is used as an alternate to the DC power supply in some projects which require 5V otherwise 12V.
Batteries
The battery is one kind of electrical energy storage device. This device is used to change the energy from chemical to electrical to supply the power to various electronic devices like mobile phones, flashlights, laptops, etc.
These consist of one or more cells and each cell contains an anode, cathode, and electrolyte. Batteries are available in various sizes which are also divided into primary as well as secondary. Primary types are used until they discharge the power & throw away them afterward whereas secondary batteries can also be used even after they discharged The batteries used in the circuits are 1.5V AA type otherwise 9V PP3 type. Please refer to this link to know more about Batteries
Relay
An electromagnetic switch like the relay is used to operate the circuits electronically otherwise electromechanically. A relay uses less amount of currents to operate so generally they are used to change low currents within a control circuit. But relays can also be used for controlling high electric currents. A relay switch can be operated through a less current to switch ON a different circuit. These are either solid-state or electromechanical relays.
An EMR or electromechanical relay includes a coil, frame, contacts, and armature, spring. In the relay, this frame gives support to different parts & an armature is a moving part. A copper wire or coil is wounded around a metal rod to produce a magnetic field that moves the armature. The conducting parts like contacts are used to close and open the circuit.
An SSR or solid-state relay can be built with three circuits like input, output & control circuit. The input circuit is the same as a coil, the control circuit works like a coupling device among the circuits like input & output & finally, the output circuit acts like the contacts within an electromechanical relay. These relays are very popular because they are inexpensive, reliable, and very fast as compared with electromechanical relays. Please refer to this link to know more about relay
LED
The term LED stands for light-emitting diode. It is a semiconductor device used to emit light whenever a current supply flows through it. In the semiconductor material, the charge carriers like electrons and holes combine then light can be generated. When light generates in the solid semiconductor material then these LEDs can be known as solid-state devices.
The materials used to manufacture the LEDs are InGaN (Indium Gallium Nitride), these are high-brightness LEDs and available in green, blue, and ultraviolet colors. AlGaInP (Aluminum Gallium Indium Phosphate), are high-brightness LEDs and available in orange, yellow, and red colors. GaP (Gallium Phosphide) is available in green and yellow colors.
The applications of LEDs includes from cell phones to the large display boards which are used for advertising purpose and also used in magical light bulbs At present, the usage of these devices is increasing quickly because of their extraordinary properties. These devices are extremely tiny in size & use less power. Please refer to this link to know more about LEDs
Microcontroller
A microcontroller is one kind of IC designed to execute a specific task within an embedded system. It comprises a memory, processor & I/O peripherals on a chip. Sometimes, these are called MCU (microcontroller unit) otherwise embedded controller.
These are mainly used in robots, vehicles,
medical devices, office machines, home appliances, vending machines, mobile
radio transceivers, etc.
The elements used in the microcontroller are the CPU, memory, program memory,
data memory, I/O peripherals, etc. It supports other elements like ADC, DAC,
serial port, and system bus. Please refer to this link to know more
about Microcontroller
Switches
A switch is one kind of electrical component, used to connect or disconnect the conducting lane within the circuit so that electric current can be supplied or interrupted from one conductor to another. An electromechanical device is the most common kind of switch that comprises one or more electrical contacts that are movable and connected to other circuits.
Once the set of contacts in the circuit are connected then there is a flow of current. Similarly, when the contacts are disconnected then there is no flow of current. The designing of switches can be done in different configurations and their operation can be done manually like a keyboard button, a light switch, etc. A switch can also work like a sensing element namely a thermostat to detect the location of a machine part, level of liquid, temperature, pressure, etc.
The different types of switches available in the market are rotary, toggle, pushbutton, mercury relay, circuit breaker, etc. Switches must have a particular design while using high-powered circuits to stop critical arcing once they are unlocked. Please refer to this link to know more about switches
Seven Segment Display
A 7-segment display is a very frequently used display module. The main function of this device is to exhibit decimal numbers in several electronic devices such as meters, clocks, information systems in public places and calculators, etc. Please refer to this link to know more about the 7-segment display
Test & Measurement Devices
While connecting or designing electrical or electronic circuits, different parameter testing, as well as measuring, is very essential like the voltage, frequency, current, resistance, capacitance, etc.. Therefore, the test, as well as measurement devices, are used such as Multimeters, Oscilloscopes, Signal or Function Generators, Logic Analyzers.
Oscilloscope
The test equipment like oscilloscope is the most reliable one, used to monitor the signals which are varying continuously. By using this equipment, we can notice the changes within an electrical signal such as current, over time, and voltage. The applications of Oscilloscopes are Electronic, Industrial Medical, Automobile, Telecommunication, etc.
These are designed with CRT displays (Cathode Ray Tube) however at present approximately all these devices are digital including some superior features such as memory & storage. Please refer to this link to know more about oscilloscope
Multimeter
A multimeter is an electronic instrument and it is a combination of Ammeter, Ohmmeter & Voltmeter. These devices are mainly used to calculate various parameters within the circuits in AC & DC like the voltage, current, etc.
Previous meters are the analog type that includes a pointing needle whereas the present meters are digital type, so these are known as DMs or Digital Multimeters. These instruments are obtainable like handheld & bench devices. Please refer to this link to know more about multimeter
Signal or Function Generator
As the name suggests, a signal generator is used to generate different kinds of signals troubleshoot, and test different circuits. The signals which are most frequently generated by the signal generator are sine, triangle, square, & saw tooth. A function generator is an essential device while designing electronic circuits along with an oscilloscope and bench power supply. Please refer to this link to know more about function generator
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
An electronic circuit that directs & controls the flow of current to execute several functions like an amplification of the signal, transferring the data, and computation. It can be built with various electronic components such as resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes & transistors. The applications of these components are discussed below.
Consumer Electronic Devices
These components are used in consumer electronics like calculators, personal computers, printers, scanners FAX machine, etc. Home appliances like AC, refrigerator, washing machine, vacuum cleaner, microwave oven, etc.
The systems for audio &video systems like TVs, DVD players, headphones, VCRs, loudspeakers and microphones, etc. Advanced electronic devices like ATM, setup box, smartphones, barcode scanners, DVDs, MP3 player, HDD jukebox, etc.
Industrial Electronic Devices
These components are utilized in motion control, industrial automation, motor drive control, machine learning, robotics, mechatronics, technologies for converting power, biomechanics PV systems, Power electronics, applications of renewable energy, etc. The smart grid system is used to gather the data using communication technology to respond consequently depending on power usage.
It is the function of computing, intelligence & arranged electricity systems. These electronic components apply to automation in industries, motion control, etc. At present, machines are replacing humans by increasing time, cost, and productivity. Additionally, security is also measured for uncontrollable works.
Medical Devices
Advanced devices are being implemented for recording the data & physiological study. They are verified to be more helpful in identifying diseases as well as for healing. These components are applicable in medical equipment like respiration monitors used for recognizing the condition of the patient because of the change within the pulse, body temperature, blood flow, and respiration.
The defibrillator device is used to cause electrical shock for heart muscles to bring back the heart to the regular working state. A glucose meter is used to check the level of sugar within the blood. A pacemaker is used to increase or decrease the heartbeat count.
Aerospace & Defense
The application of aerospace and defense includes aircraft systems, radars for military, missile launching systems, cockpit controllers, rocket launchers for space, boom barrier for military applications.
Automotive
These components are used in the automotive field like anti-collision unit, cruise control, infotainment console, anti-lock braking system, airbag control, electronic control unit, window regulators & traction control.
These are the few basic electronic components
How Electronic Components Work
Electronic Circuit Overview
An electronic circuit is a structure that directs and controls electric current to perform various functions including signal amplification, computation, and data transfer. It comprises several different components such as resistors, transistors, capacitors, inductors, and diodes. Conductive wires or traces are used to connect the components to each other. However, a circuit is complete only if it starts and ends at the same point, forming a loop.
THE ELEMENTS OF AN ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT
The complexity and the number of components in an electronic circuit may change depending on its application. However, the simplest circuit consists of three elements, including a conducting path, a voltage source, and a load.
Element 1: Conducting Path
The electric current flows through the conducting path. Though copper wires are used in simple circuits, they are rapidly being replaced by conductive traces. Conductive traces are nothing but copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. They are often used in small and complex circuits such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCB).
Element 2: Voltage Source
The primary function of a circuit is to allow electric current to pass through it safely. So, the first key element is the voltage source. It is a two-terminal device such as a battery, generators or power systems that provide a potential difference (voltage) between two points in the circuit so that current can flow through it.
Element 3: Load
A load is an element in the circuit that consumes power to perform a particular function. A light bulb is the simplest load. Complex circuits, however, have different loads such as resistors, capacitors, transistors, and transistors.
ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT FACTS
Fact 1: Open Circuit
As mentioned before, a circuit must always form a loop to allow the current to flow through it. However, when it comes to an open circuit, the current can’t flow as one or more components are disconnected either intentionally (by using a switch) or accidentally (broken parts). In other words, any circuit that does not form a loop is an open circuit.
Fact 2: Closed Circuit
A closed circuit is one that forms a loop without any interruptions. Thus, it is the exact opposite of an open circuit. However, a complete circuit that doesn’t perform any function is still a closed circuit. For example, a circuit connected to a dead battery may not perform any work, but it is still a closed circuit.
Fact 3: Short Circuit
In the case of short-circuit, a low-resistance connection forms between two points in an electric circuit. As a result, the current tends to flow through this newly formed connection rather than along the intended path. For example, if there is a direct connection between the battery’s negative and positive terminal, the current will flow through it rather than passing through the circuit.
However, short circuits usually lead to serious accidents as the current can flow at dangerously high levels. Hence, a short circuit can damage electronic equipment, cause batteries to explode, and even start a fire in commercial and residential buildings.
Fact 4: Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs)
Most electronic appliances require complex electronic circuits. That’s why designers have to arrange tiny electronic components on a circuit board. It comprises a plastic board with connecting copper tracks on one side and lots of holes to affix the components. When the layout of a circuit board is printed chemically onto a plastic board, it is called a printed circuit board or PCB.
Fact 5: Integrated Circuits (ICs)
Though PCBs can offer a lot of advantages, most modern instruments such as computers and mobiles require complex circuits, having thousands and even millions of components. That’s where integrated circuits come in. They are the tiny electronic circuits that can fit inside a small silicon chip. Jack Kilby invented the first integrated circuit in 1958 at Texas Instruments. The sole purpose of ICs is to increase the efficiency of the electronic devices, while reducing their size and manufacturing cost. Over the years, integrated circuits have become increasingly sophisticated as technology continues to evolve. That’s why personal computers, laptops, mobiles phones, and other consumer electronics are getting cheaper and better by the day.
MORE ON ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
The following components are used to construct electronic circuits.
COMPONENT 1: CAPACITOR
A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that can store energy in an electric field electrostatically. In simple terms, it works as a small rechargeable battery that stores electricity. However, unlike a battery, it can charge and discharge in the split of a second.
A. Composition
Capacitors come in all shapes and sizes, but they usually have the same primary components. There are two electrical conductors or plates separated by a dielectric or insulator stacked between them. Plates are composed of conducting material such as thin films of metal or aluminum foil. A dielectric, on the other hand, is a non-conducting material such as glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, or mica. You can insert the two electrical connections protruding from the plates to fix the capacitor in a circuit.
B. How Does It Work?
When you apply a voltage over the two plates or connect them to a source, an electric field develops across the insulator, causing one plate to accumulate positive charge while negative charge gets collected on the other. The capacitor continues to hold its charge even if you disconnect it from the source. The moment you connect it to a load, the stored energy will flow from the capacitor to the load.
Capacitance is the amount of energy stored in a capacitor. The higher the capacitance, the more energy it can store. You can increase the capacitance by moving the plates closer to each other or increasing their size. Alternatively, you can also enhance the insulation qualities to increase the capacitance.
C. Function and Significance
Though capacitors look like batteries, they can perform different types of functions in a circuit such as blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass or smooth the output from a power supply. They are also used in electric power transmission systems to stabilize voltage and power flow. One of the most significant functions of a capacitor in the AC systems is power factor correction, without which you can’t provide sufficient amount of starting torque to single phase motors.
Filters Capacitor Applications
If you are using a microcontroller in a circuit to run a specific program, you don’t want its voltage to drop as that will reset the controller. That’s why designers use a capacitor. It can supply the microcontroller with the necessary power for a split second to avoid a restart. In other words, it filters out the noise on the power line and stabilizes the power supply.
Hold-Up Capacitor Applications
Unlike a battery, a capacitor releases its charge rapidly. That’s why it is used to provide power to a circuit for a short while. Your camera batteries charge the capacitor attached to the flash gun. When you take a flash photograph, the capacitor releases its charge in a split second to generate a flash of light.
Timer Capacitor Applications
In a resonant or time-dependent circuit, capacitors are used along with a resistor or inductor as a timing element. The time required to charge and discharge a capacitor determines the operation of the circuit.
COMPONENT 2: RESISTOR
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical device that resists the flow of current. It is probably the simplest element in an electronic circuit. It is also one of the most common components as resistance is an inherent element of nearly all electronic circuits. They are usually color-coded.
A. Composition
A resistor is not a fancy device at all because resistance is a natural property possessed by almost all conductors. So, a capacitor consists of a copper wire wrapped around an insulating material such as a ceramic rod. The number of turns and the thinness of copper wire are directly proportional to the resistance. The higher the number of turns and thinner the wire, the higher the resistance.
You can also find resistors made of a spiral pattern of a carbon film. Hence, the name carbon film resistors. They are designed for lower-power circuits because carbon film resistors are not as precise as their wire-wound counterparts. However, they are cheaper than wired resistors. Wire terminals are attached to the both ends. As resistors are blind to the polarity in a circuit, the current can flow through in either direction. So, there is no need to worry about attaching them in a forward or a backward direction.
B. How Does It Work?
A resistor may not look like much. One may think it doesn’t do anything except consume power. However, it performs a vital function: controlling the voltage and the current in your circuit. In other words, resistors give you control over the design of your circuit.
When electric current starts flowing through a wire, all the electrons start moving in the same direction. It’s just like water flowing through a pipe. Less amount of water will flow through a thin pipe because there is less room for its movement.
Similarly, when the current passes through a thin wire in a resistor, it becomes progressively harder for the electrons to wiggle through it. In short, the number of electrons flowing through a resistor goes down as the length and thinness of the wire increases.
C. Function and Significance
Resistors have plenty of applications, but the three most common ones are managing current flow, dividing voltage, and resistor-capacitor networks.
Limiting the Flow of Current
If you don’t add resistors to a circuit, the current will flow at dangerously high levels. It can overheat other components and possibly damage them. For example, if you connect an LED directly to a battery, it would still work. However, after some time the LED will heat up like a fireball. It will eventually burn as LEDs are less tolerant to heat.
But, if you introduce a resistor in the circuit, it will reduce the flow of current to an optimal level. Thus, you can keep the LED on longer without overheating it.
Dividing Voltage
Resistors are also used to reduce the voltage to the desired level. Sometimes, a particular part of a circuit such as a microcontroller may need a lower voltage than the circuit itself. This is where a resistor comes in.
Let’s say your circuit runs off of a 12V battery. However, the microcontroller needs only a 6V supply. So, to divide the voltage in half, all you have to do is place two resistors of equal resistance value in series. The wire in between the two resistors will have halved the voltage of your circuit where the microcontroller can be attached. Using appropriate resistors, you can lower the voltage within the circuit to any level.
Resistor-Capacitor Networks
Resistors are also used in combination with capacitors to build ICs that contain resistor-capacitor arrays in a single chip. They are also known as RC filters or RC networks. They are often used to suppress electromagnetic Interference (EMI) or Radio Frequency Interference (RFI) in various instruments, including input/output ports of computers and laptops, Local Area Networks (LANs), and Wide Area Networks (WANs), among others. They are also used in machine tools, switchgears, motor controllers, automated equipment, industrial appliances, elevators, and escalators.
COMPONENT 3: DIODE
A diode is a two-terminal device that allows electric current to flow in only one direction. Thus, it is the electronic equivalent of a check valve or a one-way street. It is commonly used to convert an Alternating Current (AC) into a Direct Current (DC). It is made either of a semiconductor material (semiconductor diode) or vacuum tube (vacuum tube diode). Today, however, most diodes are made from semiconductor material, particularly silicon.
A. Composition
As mentioned earlier, there are two types of diodes: vacuum diodes and semiconductor diodes. A vacuum diode consists of two electrodes (cathode and anode) placed inside a sealed vacuum glass tube. A semiconductor diode comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors. It is, therefore, known as a p-n junction diode. It is usually made of silicon, but you can also use germanium or selenium.
B. How Does It Work?
Vacuum Diode
When the cathode is heated by a filament, an invisible cloud of electrons, called space charge, forms in the vacuum. Though electrons are emitted from the cathode, the negative space charge repels them. As electrons can’t reach the anode, no current flows through the circuit. However, when the anode is made positive, the space charge vanishes. As a result, current starts flowing from the cathode to the anode. Thus, electric current within the diode flows only from the cathode to the anode and never from the anode to the cathode.
P-N Junction Diode
A p-n junction diode comprises p-type and n-type semiconductors of silicon. The p-type semiconductor is usually doped with boron, leaving holes (positive charge) in it. The n-type semiconductor, on the other hand, is doped with antimony, adding a few extra electrons (negative charge) in it. So, electric current can flow through both semiconductors.
When you put p-type and n-type blocks together, the extra electrons from the n-type combine with the holes in the p-type, creating a depletion zone without any free electrons or holes. In short, current can no longer pass through the diode.
When you connect the battery’s negative terminal to the n-type silicon and the positive terminal to p-type (forward-bias), current starts to flow as electrons and holes can now move across the junction. However, if you reverse the terminals (reverse-bias), no current flows through the diode because holes and electrons are pushed away from each other, widening the depletion zone. So, just like a vacuum diode, a junction diode can also allow current to pass in one direction only.
C. Function and Significance
Though diodes are one of the simplest components in an electronic circuit, they have unique applications across industries.
AC to DC Conversion
The most common and important application of a diode is the rectification of AC power to DC power. Usually, a half-wave (single diode) or a full-wave (four diodes) rectifier is used to convert AC power into DC power, particularly in household power supply. When you pass AC power supply through a diode, only half the AC waveform passes through it. As this voltage pulse is used to charge the capacitor, it produces steady and continuous DC currents without any ripples. Different combinations of diodes and capacitors are also used to build various types of voltage multipliers to multiply a small AC voltage into high DC outputs.
Bypass Diodes
Bypass diodes are often used to protect solar panels. When the current from the rest of the cells passes through a damaged or dusty solar cell, it causes overheating. As a result, the overall output power decreases, creating hot spots. The diodes are connected parallel to the solar cells to protect them against this overheating problem. This simple arrangement limits the voltage across the bad solar cell while allowing the current to pass through undamaged cells to the external circuit.
Voltage Spike Protection
When the power supply is suddenly interrupted, it produces a high voltage in most inductive loads. This unexpected voltage spike can damage the loads. However, you can protect expensive equipment by connecting a diode across the inductive loads. Depending on the type of security, these diodes are known by many names including snubber diode, flyback diode, suppression diode, and freewheeling diode, among others.
Signal Demodulation
They are also used in the process of signal modulation because diodes can remove the negative element of an AC signal efficiently. The diode rectifies the carrier wave, turning it into DC. The audio signal is retrieved from the carrier wave, a process called audio-frequency modulation. You can hear the audio after some filtering and amplification. Hence, diodes are commonly found in radios to extract the signal from the carrier wave.
Reverse Current Protection
Reversing polarities of a DC supply or incorrectly connecting the battery can cause a substantial current to flow through a circuit. Such a reverse connection can damage the connected load. That’s why a protective diode is connected in series with the positive side of the battery terminal. The diode becomes forward-biased in the case of correct polarity and the current flows through the circuit. However, in the event of a wrong connection, it becomes reverse-biased, blocking the current. Thus, it can protect your equipment from potential damage.
COMPONENT 4: TRANSISTOR
One of the most crucial components of an electronic circuit, transistors have revolutionized the field of electronics. These tiny semiconductor devices with three terminals have been around for more than five decades now. They are often used as amplifiers and switching devices. You can think of them as relays without any moving parts because they can turn something ‘on’ or ‘off’ without any movement.
A. Composition
In the beginning, Germanium was used to build transistors which were extremely temperature-sensitive. Today, however, they are made from Silicon, a semiconductor material found in the sand because Silicon transistors are much more temperature-tolerant and cheaper to manufacture. There are two different types of Bipolar Junction Transistors (BJT), NPN and PNP. Each transistor has three pins called Base (b), collector (c), and emitter (e). NPN and PNP refer to the layers of semiconductor material used to make the transistor.
B. How Does It Work?
When you sandwich a p-type silicon slab between two n-type bars, you get an NPN transistor. The emitter is attached to one n-type, while the collector is attached to the other. The base is attached to the p-type. The surplus holes in the p-type silicon act as barriers, blocking the flow of the current. However, if you apply a positive voltage to the base and the collector and negatively charge the emitter, electrons start flowing from the emitter to the collector.
The arrangement and number of p-type and n-type blocks remain inverted in a PNP transistor. In this type of transistor, one n-type is sandwiched between two p-type blocks. As voltage allocation is different, a PNP transistor works differently. An NPN transistor requires a positive voltage to the base, while a PNP requires a negative voltage. In short, the current must flow away from the base to turn a PNP transistor on.
C. Function and Significance
Transistors function as both, switches and amplifiers in most electronic circuits. Designers often use a transistor as a switch because unlike a simple switch, it can turn a small current into a much larger one. Though you can use a simple switch in an ordinary circuit, an advanced circuit may need varying amounts of currents at different stages.
Transistors in Hearing Aids
One of the most well-known applications of transistors is the hearing aid. Usually, a small microphone in the hearing aid picks up the sound waves, converting them into fluctuating electrical pulses or currents. When these currents pass through a transistor, they are amplified. The amplified pulses then pass through a speaker, converting them into sound waves once again. Thus, you can hear a substantially louder version of the surrounding noise.
Transistors in Computers and Calculators
We all know that computers store and process information using the binary language of “zero” and “one.” However, most people don’t know that transistors play a critical role in making something called logic gates, which are the backbones of computer programs. Transistors are often hooked up with logic gates to build a unique piece of an arrangement called a flip-flop. In this system, the transistor remains ‘on’ even if you remove the base current. It now flips on or off whenever new current passes through it. Thus, a transistor can store a zero when it’s off or a one when it’s on, which is the working principle of computers.
Darlington Transistors
A Darlington transistor is made of two PNP or NPN polar junction transistors placed together. It is named after its inventor Sidney Darlington. The sole purpose of a Darlington transistor is to deliver a high current gain from a low base current. You can find these transistors in instruments that require a high current gain at a low frequency such as power regulators, display drivers, motor controllers, light and touch sensors, alarm systems, and audio amplifiers.
IGBT and MOSFET Transistors
The Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) transistors are often used as amplifiers and switches in various instruments including electric cars, trains, refrigerators, air-conditioners, and even stereo systems. On the other hand, Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MOSFET) are commonly used in integrated circuits to control a device’s power levels or for storing data.
COMPONENT 5: INDUCTOR
An inductor, also known as a reactor, is a passive component of a circuit having two terminals. This device stores energy in its magnetic field, returning it to the circuit whenever required. It was discovered that when two inductors are placed side by side without touching, the magnetic field created by the first inductor affects the second inductor. It was a crucial breakthrough that led to the invention of the first transformers.
A. Composition
It is probably the simplest component, comprising just a coil of copper wire. The inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns in the coil. Sometimes, however, the coil is wound around a ferromagnetic material such as iron, laminated iron, and powdered iron to increase the inductance. The shape of this core can also increase the inductance. Toroidal (donut-shaped) cores provide better inductance compared to solenoidal (rod-shaped) cores for the same number of turns. Unfortunately, it is difficult to join inductors in an integrated circuit, so they are usually replaced by resistors.
B. How Does It Work?
Whenever the current passes through a wire, it creates a magnetic field. However, the unique shape of the inductor leads to the creation of a much stronger magnetic field. This powerful magnetic field, in turn, resists alternating current, but it lets direct current flow through it. This magnetic field also stores energy.
Take a simple circuit comprising a battery, a switch, and a bulb. The bulb will glow brightly the moment you turn the switch on. Add an inductor to this circuit. As soon you turn the switch on, the bulb changes from bright to dim. On the other hand, when the switch is turned off, it becomes very bright, just for a fraction of a second before turning off completely.
As you turn the switch on, the inductor starts using the electricity to create a magnetic field, temporarily blocking the current flow. But, only DC current passes through the inductor as soon as the magnetic field is complete. That’s why the bulb changes from bright to dim. All this time, the inductor stores some electrical energy in the form of magnetic field. So, when you turn the switch off, the magnetic field keeps the current in the coil steady. Thus, the bulb burns brightly for a while before turning off.
C. Function and Significance
Though inductors are useful, it is difficult to incorporate them into electronic circuits due to their size. As they are bulkier compared to other components, they add a lot of weight and occupy plenty of space. Hence they are usually replaced by resistors in integrated circuits (ICs). Still, inductors have a wide range of industrial applications.
Filters in Tuned Circuits
One of the most common applications of inductors is to select the desired frequency in tuned circuits. They are used extensively with capacitors and resistors, either in parallel or series, to create filters. The impedance of an inductor increases as the frequency of signal increases. Thus, a stand-alone inductor can only act as a low-pass filter. However, when you combine it with a capacitor, you can create a notched filter because the impedance of a capacitor decreases as the frequency of signal increase. So, you can use different combinations of capacitors, inductors, and resistors to create various types of filters. They are found in most electronics including televisions, desktop computers, and radios.
Inductors as Chokes
If an alternate current flows through an inductor, it creates an opposite current flow. Thus, it can convert an AC supply into a DC. In other words, it chokes the AC supply but allows the DC to pass through it, hence the name ‘choke.’ Usually, they are found in power supply circuits that need to convert AC supply to DC supply.
Ferrite Beads
A ferrite bead or ferrite choke is used to suppress high-frequency noise in electronic circuits. Some of the common uses of ferrite beads include computer cables, television cables, and mobile charge cables. These cables can, sometimes, act as antennas, interloping with audio and video output of your television and computer. So, inductors are used in ferrite beads to reduce such radio frequency interference.
Inductors in Proximity Sensors
Most proximity sensors work on the principle of inductance. An inductive proximity sensor comprises four parts including an inductor or coil, an oscillator, a detection circuit and an output circuit. The oscillator generates a fluctuating magnetic field. Whenever an object comes into the proximity of this magnetic field, eddy currents start to build up, reducing the sensor’s magnetic field.
The detection circuit determines the strength of the sensor, while output circuit triggers the appropriate response. Inductive proximity sensors, also called contactless sensors, are cherished for their reliability. They are used at traffic lights to detect the traffic density and also as parking sensors in cars and trucks.
Induction Motors
An induction motor is probably the most common example of the application of inductors. Usually, in an induction motor, inductors are placed in a fixed position. In other words, they are not allowed to align with the nearby magnetic field. An AC power supply is used to create a rotating magnetic field which then rotates the shaft. The power input controls the speed of rotation. Hence, inductions motors are often used in fixed speed applications. The induction motors are very reliable and robust because there is no direct contact between the motor and the rotor.
Transformers
As mentioned earlier, the discovery of inductors led to the invention of transformers, one of the fundamental components of power transmission systems. You can create a transformer by combining the inductors of a shared magnetic field. They are usually used to increase or decrease voltages of the power lines to the desired level.
Energy Storage
Just like a capacitor, an inductor can also store energy. However, unlike a capacitor, it can store energy for a limited time. As the energy is stored in a magnetic field, it collapses as soon as the power supply is removed. Still, inductors function as reliable energy storage device in switch mode power supply such as desktop computers.
COMPONENT 6: RELAY
A relay is an electromagnetic switch that can open and close circuits electromechanically or electronically. You need a relatively small current to operate a relay. Usually, they are used to regulate low currents in a control circuit. However, you can also use relays to control high electric currents. A relay is the electrical equivalent of a lever. You can switch it on with a small current to turn on (or leverage) another circuit using large current. Relays are either electromechanical relays or solid-state relays.
A. Composition
An Electromechanical Relay (EMR) comprises a frame, coil, armature, spring, and contacts. The frame supports various parts of the relay. The armature is the moving part of a relay switch. A coil (mostly copper wire), wound around a metal rod generates a magnetic field that moves the armature. Contacts are the conducting parts that open and close the circuit.
A Solid-State Relay (SSR) consists of an input circuit, a control circuit, and an output circuit. The input circuit is the equivalent of a coil in an electromechanical relay. The control circuit acts as a coupling device between input and output circuits, while the output circuit performs the same function as the contacts in an EMR. Solid-state relays are becoming increasingly popular as they are cheaper, faster, and reliable compared to electromechanical relays.
B. How Does It Work?
Whether you are using an electromechanical relay or a solid-state relay, it is either a Normally Closed (NC) or a Normally Opened (NO) relay. In case of an NC relay, the contacts remain closed when there is no power supply. However, in a NO relay, the contacts remain open when there is no power supply. In short, whenever current flows through a relay, the contacts will either open or close shut.
In an EMR, power supply energizes the relay coil, creating a magnetic field. The magnetic coil attracts a ferrous plate mounted on the armature. When the current stops, the armature is released into its resting position by spring action. An EMR can also have single or multiple contacts within a single package. If a circuit uses only one contact, it is called a Single Break (SB) circuit. A Double Break Circuit (DB), on the other hand, comes with tow contacts. Usually, single break relays are used to control low power devices such as indicator lamps, while double break contacts are used to regulate high-power devices such as solenoids.
When it comes to operating an SSR, you need to apply a voltage higher than the specified pickup voltage of the relay to activate the input circuit. You have to apply a voltage less than the stipulated minimum dropout voltage of the relay to deactivate the input circuit. Control circuit transfers the signal from the input circuit to the output circuit. The output circuit switches on the load or performs the desired action.
C. Function and Significance
As they can control a high current circuit by a low current signal, most control processes use relays as the primary protection and switching devices. They can also detect fault and irregularities occurring in the power distribution systems. Typical applications include telecommunication, automobiles, traffic control systems, home appliances, and computers among others.
Protective Relays
Protective relays are used to trip or isolate a circuit if any irregularities are detected. Sometimes, they can also set off alarms when a fault is detected. Types of protection relays depend on their function. For example, an overcurrent relay is designed to identify the current exceeding a predetermined value. When such current is detected, the relay operates tripping a circuit breaker to protect the equipment from potential damage.
A distance relay or impedance relay, on the other hand, can detect abnormalities in the ratio of current and voltage rather than monitoring their magnitude independently. It swarms into action when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermined value. Usually, protective relays are used to protect equipment such as motors, generators, and transformers, and so on.
Automatic Reclosing Relay
An automatic reclosing relay is designed to cause multiple reclosures of a circuit breaker that is already tripped by a protective relaying. For example, when there is a sudden voltage drop, the electrical circuit in your home may experience several brief power outages. These outages occur because a reclosing relay is trying to switch on the protective relay automatically. If it succeeds the power supply will be restored. If not, there will be a complete blackout.
Thermal Relays
The thermal effect of electrical energy is the working principle of a thermal relay. In short, it can detect the rise the ambient temperature and switch on or off a circuit accordingly. It consists of a bimetallic strip which heats up if an overcurrent passes through it. The heated strip bends and closes the No contact, tripping the circuit breaker. The most common application of thermal relay is overload protection of electric motor.
COMPONENT 7. QUARTZ CRYSTAL
Quartz crystals have several applications in the electronics industry. However, they are mostly used as resonators in electronic circuits. Quartz is a naturally occurring form of silicon. However, it is now produced synthetically to meet the growing demand. It exhibits the piezoelectric effect. If you apply physical pressure on one side, the resulting vibrations generate an AC voltage across the crystal. Quartz crystal resonators are available in many sizes according to the required applications.
A. Composition
As mentioned earlier, quartz crystals are either synthetically manufactured or occur naturally. They are often used to make crystal oscillators to create an electrical signal with a precise frequency. Usually, the shape of quartz crystals is hexagonal with pyramids at ends. However, for practical purposes, they are cut into rectangular slabs. The most common types of cutting formats include X cut, Y cut, and AT cut. This slab is placed between two metal plates called holding plates. The outer shape of a quartz crystal or crystal oscillator can be cylindrical, rectangular or square.
B. How Does It Work?
If you apply an alternating voltage to a crystal, it causes mechanical vibrations. The cut and the size of the quartz crystal determine the resonant frequency of these vibrations or oscillations. Thus, it generates a constant signal. Quartz oscillators are cheap and easy to manufacture synthetically. They are available in the range from a few KHz to a few MHz. As they have a higher quality factor or Q factor, crystal oscillators are remarkably stable with respect to time and temperature.
C. Function and Significance
The exceptionally high Q factor enables you to use quartz crystals and the resonant element in oscillators as well as filters in electronic circuits. You can find this highly reliable component in radio frequency applications, as oscillator clock circuits in microprocessor boards, and as a timing element in digital watches as well.
Quartz Watches
The problem with traditional coil spring watches is that you have to keep winding the coil periodically. Pendulum watches, on the other hand, depend on the force of gravity. Thus, they tell time differently at different sea levels and altitudes due to changes in the gravitational force. The performance of quartz watches, however, is not affected by any of these factors. Quartz watches are battery-powered. Usually, a tiny crystal of quartz regulates the gears that control the second, the minute, and the hour hands. As quartz watches use very little energy, the battery can often last longer.
Filters
You can also use quartz crystals in an electronic circuit as filters. They are often used to filter out unwanted signals in radios and microcontrollers. Most basic filters consist of a single quartz crystal. However, advanced filters may comprise more than one crystal to match the performance requirements. These quartz crystal filters are far superior to the ones manufactured using LC components.
// article published originally on ICRFQ. How-electronic-components-work
HOW TO TEST ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS WITH A MULTIMETER
What Is a Multimeter?
A multimeter is a tool used to measure several functions of an electrical component to assess its condition. Multimeters are used to troubleshoot electronics by detecting where connectivity problems may lie within a given electronic, and by diagnosing the type of issue – or at least indicating to the technician what their next step should be.
Among various functions, multimeters are most commonly used to test continuity, resistance, and voltage:
Continuity
A continuity test is performed to determine whether two items are electrically connected, allowing an electric current to flow from one to the other. When testing for continuity, you place the probes of the multimeter on either side of the component. If the resulting reading is at or around ‘0’, the component is continuous. A reading of ‘1’ or ‘open loop’ indicates that the component is non-continuous, and does not allow electricity to flow through it.
Resistance
A resistance test is performed to determine how much current is lost during its journey through an electrical component. Various parts and components have different strengths, so before you test a part, you need to know how much resistance it should have. Always disconnect any device or component from an energy source before testing for resistance. Like when you measure for continuity, a resistance test involves placing the probes of the multimeter on either side of the component to get a reading.
Voltage
A voltage test is performed to assess the force of an electric current. Like when testing resistance, voltage testing requires you to know the expected voltage range beforehand to appropriately set your multimeter and to know whether the reading indicates an issue or not. The testing process for voltage is similar to other multimeter tests, but individual multimeters may come with specific instructions.
Using a Multimeter
Multimeters make it easy to automatically check the condition of various electrical components, but you will need to learn to properly set up and use a multimeter for the most accurate readings. First, determine what type of test you are performing, and select the appropriate setting. If you are checking for resistance, you will need to choose the Ohms setting, whereas you will need to choose either AC or DC if you are measuring voltage.
When using a multimeter, the most important step to remember is to select a voltage or range that will be higher than the expected value of the component you plan to test. Always disconnect any device you plan to test or troubleshoot from its power source before disassembly.
Checking Electrical Components
Electrical devices can malfunction or become damaged in a huge number of places, which is why it can sometimes be difficult to find the source of the problem. With tools like a multimeter, you can test the individual components of a device, helping you to pinpoint the issue, test components before use, perform routine testing and repairs, and more.
Battery
Before replacing components or making major repairs on a device, the first step most technicians take is to test a device’s battery. Using a multimeter to test a battery’s voltage, you can determine whether a battery is fully charged, in need of charge, burnt out, about to burn out, and so on. By testing a battery for its voltage, you can rule out certain electrical issues, keep track of when batteries need replacing, and ensure your devices are being powered properly.
Cables & Wires
Cables and wires should be tested before being used or added to a device, but can also be tested once they have already been installed. Cables are tested for continuity, assessing their ability to channel electrical charge and transport it from one place to another.
Capacitors & Inductors
The first step in testing a capacitor or inductor is to ensure the unit is discharged. Set the multimeter to measure Ohms, and connect the probes to the terminals. If the meter reads ‘open line’, the unit is in good condition. If there is no change, and no reading appears on the meter, the unit is dead.
Diodes
Disconnect the diode from its power supply
and ensure that it is discharged. Set the multimeter to ‘diode test’, and
connect the meter probes to the diode leads. Test, and note the reading. Next,
reverse the test probes and test again, also noting this reading.
If the first reading shows 0.5V – 0.8V (silicon) or 0.2V – 0.3V (germanium), the
diode is in good condition. If the reversed test reads OL (open line), the diode
is confirmed to be in good condition. If the reading shows OL in both
directions, the diode is dead. If the meter shows a reading of around 0.4V in
both directions, the diode is short and needs to be replaced.
Fuse
Connect the probes of the multimeter with the fuse, and set the meter to ‘resistance’ mode. If the reading shows 0, the fuse is in good condition. If the reading shows ‘infinite’, it is an indication of a problem and the fuse may need to be replaced.
LEDs
First, disconnect the LED from its power source. Set the multimeter to ‘diode test’, and connect the probes to the LED terminal. If the LED glows, it is in good condition – any other result shows a defect or lack of charge.
Relays
Set the multimeter to ‘continuity’, then attach the probes of the meter to the coil terminals of the relay. If the multimeter makes a sound or shows any reading of continuity, the coil is in good condition. If the meter shows no change or gives no indication of continuity, the relay is damaged and needs replacing.
Resistors
Set the multimeter to ‘resistance’, then attach the probes of the meter to both ends of the resistor. If the meter reads with an exact value of resistance with a percentage tolerance, the resistor is in good condition. If the meter shows a reading of ‘infinite’, there may be a defect or the resistor may be broken and needs to be replaced.
Switches & Push Buttons
Place the switch or push button in the ON
position. Set the multimeter to ‘resistance’, then attach the probes of the
meter to both terminals of the switch or push button. This test should produce a
reading of ‘0’. Next, push the button or flip the switch to put it into the OFF
position, then perform the test again. This test should produce a reading of
‘infinite’.
If both tests produce a reading of 0, or both tests produce a reading of
infinite, the switch or button has malfunctioned and needs to be replaced.
Transistors
Using a multimeter, you can test the Base, Collector, and Emitter of a transistor.
Check out this guide for a full description of each of these tests.
Resistor & Burnt Resistors
To check if the Resistor is in good condition or broken, we use a multimeter. For this purpose, take AVO meter (or Digital Multimeter) and select “Resistance” (in AVO meter…Rotate the knob to the “Ω” or Resistance). Now connect both ends of the resistor with the AVO or Digital Multimeter Terminals. If the meter reading shows the exact value of resistance or with a percentage tolerance, it means Resistor in “Good Condition”.
For Example, 1kΩ = 1000Ω with a 5% tolerance will show the reading near about 950Ω to 1050Ω. On the other hand, if meter reading is “Infinite”, it shows the Resistor may be defective or broken and open. So you need to replace it with a new one (exact value).
You can also check the value of a burnt resistor using a digital or analog multimeter by the following three handy methods.
Related Post: How to find The value of Burnt Resistor ( By three handy Methods )
Relay Coils & SSR Relay
To test an SSR (Solid state relay) and electromechanical relay coils by using a multimeter, You will have to follow the detailed and step by step guide about “How to Test a Relay? Checking SSR & Coil Relays“.
Measuring Electrical Quantities Using Multimeter
General Precaution
- Disconnect the power source before checking, servicing, repairing or installing electrical equipment and devices.
- Always, Select the higher value in Digital or analog Multimeter, and then, gradually reduce it to the proper valve.
- Never try to work on electricity without proper guidance and care
- Read all the instructions and cautions and follow them strictly.
- The author will not be liable for any losses, injuries, or damages from the display or use of this information or try any circuit in the wrong format so please! Be careful because it’s all about electricity and electricity is too dangerous
How to Test Electronic Components
While people recommend removing the component from the appliance it is being used on, prior to testing it. Many components already installed on a circuit board can, however, be tested while still on the circuit board. These circuit board components can be tested where they are, capacitors, resistors, transistors and integrated circuits are such components. Obviously, start by looking at the components on the board to see if they are in good condition - a broken component stops the appliance from working or builds up to a bigger problem.
There are three major things to test.
1. Continuity is the first thing to check. This tests if electricity can flow through the component.
2. Resistance is the next thing to test for. Here you are checking to see if there is current loss when electricity is flowing through the component. Ohms are the measurement here and this can become a complicated test. You need to manually set the expected range of loss, while making sure the expected voltage can be handled by the multimeter you are using.
3. Like the test for resistance, checking Voltage and the force of electric pressure requires a multimeter. Here you need to know if it is AC or DC current - a voltmeter can also be used here.
Continuity should be first, as it gives you the required baseline for testing resistance and voltage. Testing diodes can be done without the continuity, as they are one directional - thus “by measuring the resistance in both directions, it is possible to ascertain whether the diode is working, and also which connections are the anode and cathode,” Electronics Notes explains.
If you plan on testing numerous components, Instructables provides a build for a tester that can be used on virtually all non power components - the Component Tester.
How-to-test-electronic-components/
How to Test Electronic Components on Finished Boards
Although testing can involve many complex procedures, particularly with ICs, there are some simple steps a designer can take to ensure their board was fabricated correctly and there are no component defects:
- Visual inspection: Look over the entire board for any signs of damaged components. Also, watch for any ICs with discolored or melted packaging. This may require a magnifying glass or microscope.
- Component power test: Power up the board and use a voltmeter to measure the voltage reaching the components. Sometimes, an apparent component failure is a simple matter of poor power distribution. You might need to look up PCB footprints for your components to ensure you’re checking the right pins.
- Power distribution test: In addition to measuring the power reaching components, you can check the voltage at various points in your power tree with a multimeter. Make sure you measure with respect to the correct ground point to ensure safety and accuracy.
- Bipolar transistor measurements: You can use a voltmeter to measure the built-in voltage of BJTs on the board by connecting the meter to the collector and emitter. This is usually ~100 mV for small transistors.
Points 2 and 3 in the above list are normally checked during in-circuit testing, which can be requested from a manufacturer. It carries some programming costs, so it might be better to do this in-house if you’re only producing a small run or you’re building prototypes. More specialized tests, such as signal integrity tests or logic tests, may require specialized equipment not used by all PCB manufacturers. If you’re scaling from a prototype to full-scale production, keep testing requirements in mind as you work with your manufacturer to start production.
In-circuit testing is known to identify over 95% of defects requiring rework during manufacturing
Use Verified Component Data for Testing
If you’re learning how to test electronic components and you need to make sure you have correct parts data, try using the electronics search engine features in Ultra Librarian. You’ll be able to access verified sourcing information and CAD data that is compatible with popular ECAD applications, which will help you streamline your verification process.
Working with Ultra Librarian sets up your team for success to ensure streamlined and error-free design, production, and sourcing. Register today for free.
How-to-test-electronic-components-for-quality-and-functionality-ulc
Electrostatic-Dissipative Workbenches
Static electricity – which is electricity that can jump between objects/surfaces, collect, and produce a static shock – can be highly disruptive when working with electrical components. Static electricity can be both disruptive and dangerous to both electrical components and sensitive electronic devices and may throw off or create false results when taking measurements with a multimeter. To ensure that your results are accurate, and to protect sensitive electronics from sudden static shock, outfit your lab, research center, or manufacturing facility with electrostatic-dissipative workbenches.
Electrostatic-dissipative materials are specifically designed to create a safe, controlled environment in which static electricity can be grounded and neutralized, preventing them from transferring to other objects like sensitive electronics. Electrostatic-dissipative materials act to reduce the risks associated with static electricity in three simple ways.
1. First, these materials are classified as ‘anti-static’, meaning they reduce the occurrence of static electricity, and are semi-resistant to its accumulation.
2. Next, electrostatic-dissipative materials create a pathway through which static energy can travel slowly, and in a controlled manner.
3. Finally, electrostatic-dissipative materials ground the energy, neutralizing it.
How-to-test-electrical-components-with-a-multimeter/
CLASSIFICATION
Active components
Semiconductors
Transistors
Transistors were considered the invention of the twentieth century that changed electronic circuits forever. A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals and electrical power.
-
Field-effect transistors
(FET)
-
MOSFET
(metal-oxide-semiconductor FET) – by far the most widely manufactured
electronic component (also known as MOS transistor)[3][4]
- PMOS (p-type MOS)
- NMOS (n-type MOS)
- CMOS (complementary MOS)
-
Power MOSFET
- LDMOS (lateral diffused MOSFET)
-
MuGFET
(multi-gate field-effect transistor)
- FinFET (fin field-effect transistor)
- TFT (thin-film transistor)
- FeFET (ferroelectric field-effect transistor)
- CNTFET (carbon nanotube field-effect transistor)
- JFET (junction field-effect transistor) – N-channel or P-channel
- MESFET (metal semiconductor FET)
- HEMT (high-electron-mobility transistor)
-
MOSFET
(metal-oxide-semiconductor FET) – by far the most widely manufactured
electronic component (also known as MOS transistor)[3][4]
-
Composite transistors
- BiCMOS (bipolar CMOS)
- IGBT (Insulated-gate bipolar transistor)
-
Other
transistors
-
Bipolar junction transistor
(BJT, or simply "transistor") – NPN or PNP
- Photo transistor – amplified photodetector
-
Darlington transistor
– NPN or PNP
- Photo Darlington – amplified photodetector
- Sziklai pair (compound transistor, complementary Darlington)
-
Bipolar junction transistor
(BJT, or simply "transistor") – NPN or PNP
-
Thyristors
- Silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) – passes current only after triggered by a sufficient control voltage on its gate
- TRIAC (TRIode for Alternating Current) – bidirectional SCR
- Unijunction transistor (UJT)
- Programmable Unijunction transistor (PUT)
- SITh (static induction thyristor)
Diodes
Conduct electricity easily in one direction, among more specific behaviors.
- Diode, rectifier, diode bridge
- Schottky diode (hot carrier diode) – super fast diode with lower forward voltage drop
- Zener diode – allows current to flow "backwards" when a specific set voltage is reached.
- Transient voltage suppression diode (TVS), unipolar or bipolar – used to absorb high-voltage spikes
- Varicap, tuning diode, varactor, variable capacitance diode – a diode whose AC capacitance varies according to the DC voltage applied.
Various examples of Light-emitting diodes
- Laser diode
- Light-emitting diode (LED) – a diode that emits light
-
Photodiode
– passes current in proportion to incident light
- Avalanche photodiode – photodiode with internal gain
- Solar Cell, photovoltaic cell, PV array or panel – produces power from light
- DIAC (diode for alternating current), Trigger Diode, SIDAC) – often used to trigger an SCR
- Constant-current diode
- Step recovery diode
- Tunnel diode - very fast diode based on quantum mechanical tunneling
Integrated circuits
Integrated Circuits can serve a variety of purposes, including acting as a timer, performing digital to analog conversion, performing amplification, or being used for logical operations.
-
Integrated circuit
(IC)
- MOS integrated circuit (MOS IC)
- Hybrid integrated circuit (hybrid IC)
- Mixed-signal integrated circuit
- Three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D IC)
- Digital electronics
-
Analog circuit
- Hall-effect sensor – senses a magnetic field
- Current sensor – senses a current through it
Programmable devices
Optoelectronic devices
-
Opto-electronics
- Opto-isolator, opto-coupler, photo-coupler – photodiode, BJT, JFET, SCR, TRIAC, zero-crossing TRIAC, open collector IC, CMOS IC, solid state relay (SSR)
- Slotted optical switch, opto switch, optical switch
- LED display – seven-segment display, sixteen-segment display, dot-matrix display
Display technologies
Current:
- Filament lamp (indicator lamp)
- Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) (preformed characters, 7 segment, starburst)
- Cathode ray tube (CRT) (dot matrix scan, radial scan (e.g. radar), arbitrary scan (e.g. oscilloscope)) (monochrome&colour)
- LCD (preformed characters, dot matrix) (passive, TFT) (monochrome, colour)
- Neon (individual, 7 segment display)
- LED (individual, 7 segment display, starburst display, dot matrix)
- Split-flap display (numeric, preprinted messages)
- Plasma display (dot matrix)
- OLED (similar to an LCD, but each pixel generates its own light, can be made flexible or transparent)
- Micro-LED (similar to OLED, but uses inorganic LEDs instead of organic ones, does not suffer from screen burn-in, however it cannot be made flexible or transparent)
Obsolete:
- Incandescent filament 7 segment display (aka 'Numitron')
- Nixie tube
- Dekatron (aka glow transfer tube)
- Magic eye tube indicator
- Penetron (a 2 colour see-through CRT)
Vacuum tubes (valves)
A vacuum tube is based on current conduction through a vacuum (see Vacuum tube).
- Diode or rectifier tube
- Amplification
-
Oscillation
- Magnetron
- Reflex Klystron (obsolete)
- Carcinotron
Optical detectors or emitters
- Phototube or photodiode – tube equivalent of semiconductor photodiode
- Photomultiplier tube – phototube with internal gain
- Cathode ray tube (CRT) or television picture tube (obsolete)
- Vacuum fluorescent display (VFD) – modern non-raster sort of small CRT display
- Magic eye tube – small CRT display used as a tuning meter (obsolete)
- X-ray tube – generates x-rays
Discharge devices
Obsolete:
- Mercury arc rectifier
- Voltage regulator tube
- Nixie tube
Power sources
Sources of electrical power:
- Battery – acid- or alkali-based power supply.
- Fuel cell – an electrochemical generator
- Power supply – usually a main hook-up
- Photovoltaic device – generates electricity from light
- Thermoelectric generator – generates electricity from temperature gradients
- Electrical generator – an electromechanical power source
- Piezoelectric generator - generates electricity from mechanical strain
- Van de Graaff generator - generates electricity from friction
Passive components
Components incapable of controlling current by means of another electrical signal are called passive devices. Resistors, capacitors, inductors, and transformers are all considered passive devices.
Resistors
SMD resistors on the backside of a PCB
Pass current in proportion to voltage (Ohm's law) and oppose current.
- Resistor – fixed value
-
Variable resistor
- Rheostat – two-terminal variable resistor (often for high power)
- Potentiometer – three-terminal variable resistor (variable voltage divider)
- Trim pot – small potentiometer, usually for internal adjustments
- Thermistor – thermally sensitive resistor whose prime function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise change in electrical resistance when subjected to a corresponding change in body temperature.[5]
- Humistor – humidity-varied resistor
- Photoresistor
- Memristor
- Varistor, Voltage-dependent resistor, MOV – Passes current when excessive voltage is present
- Resistance wire, Nichrome wire – wire of high-resistance material, often used as a heating element
- Heater – heating element
Capacitors
Some different capacitors for electronic equipment
Capacitors store and release electrical charge. They are used for filtering power supply lines, tuning resonant circuits, and for blocking DC voltages while passing AC signals, among numerous other uses.
-
Capacitor
- Integrated capacitors
-
Fixed capacitors
- Ceramic capacitor
- Film capacitor
- Electrolytic capacitor
- Supercapacitor (Electric double-layer capacitor)
- Mica capacitor
- Vacuum capacitor
-
Variable capacitor
– adjustable capacitance
- Tuning capacitor – variable capacitor for tuning a radio, oscillator, or tuned circuit
- Trimmer capacitor – small variable capacitor for seldom or rare adjustments of LC-circuits
- Vacuum variable capacitor
-
Capacitors for special applications
- Power capacitor
- Safety capacitor
- Filter capacitor
- Light-emitting capacitor (LEC)
- Motor capacitor
- Photoflash capacitor
- Reservoir capacitor / Bulk capacitor
- Coupling capacitor
- Decoupling capacitor / Buffer capacitor
- Bypass capacitor
- Pull capacitor / Padding capacitor
- Backup capacitor
- Switched capacitor
- Feedthrough capacitor
- Capacitor network (array)
- Varicap diode – AC capacitance varies according to the DC voltage applied
Integrated passive devices
Integrated passive devices are passive devices integrated within one distinct package. They take up less space than equivalent combinations of discrete components.
Magnetic (inductive) devices
Electrical components that use magnetism in the storage and release of electrical charge through current:
- Inductor, coil, choke
- Variable inductor
- Saturable inductor
- Transformer
- Magnetic amplifier (toroid)
- ferrite impedances, beads
- Motor / Generator
- Solenoid
- Loudspeaker and microphone
Memristor
Electrical components that pass charge in proportion to magnetism or magnetic flux, and have the ability to retain a previous resistive state, hence the name of Memory plus Resistor.
Networks
Components that use more than one type of passive component:
- RC network – forms an RC circuit, used in snubbers
- LC Network – forms an LC circuit, used in tunable transformers and RFI filters.
Transducers, sensors, detectors
- Transducers generate physical effects when driven by an electrical signal, or vice versa.
- Sensors (detectors) are transducers that react to environmental conditions by changing their electrical properties or generating an electrical signal.
- The transducers listed here are single electronic components (as opposed to complete assemblies), and are passive (see Semiconductors and Tubes for active ones). Only the most common ones are listed here.
-
Audio
- Loudspeaker – Electromagnetic or piezoelectric device to generate full audio
- Buzzer – Electromagnetic or piezoelectric sounder to generate tones
-
Position, motion
- Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) – Magnetic – detects linear position
- Rotary encoder, Shaft Encoder – Optical, magnetic, resistive or switches – detects absolute or relative angle or rotational speed
- Inclinometer – Capacitive – detects angle with respect to gravity
- Motion sensor, Vibration sensor
- Flow meter – detects flow in liquid or gas
-
Force, torque
- Strain gauge – Piezoelectric or resistive – detects squeezing, stretching, twisting
- Accelerometer – Piezoelectric – detects acceleration, gravity
-
Thermal
- Thermocouple, thermopile – Wires that generate a voltage proportional to delta temperature
- Thermistor – Resistor whose resistance changes with temperature, up PTC or down NTC
- Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) – Wire whose resistance changes with temperature
- Bolometer – Device for measuring the power of incident electromagnetic radiation
- Thermal cutoff – Switch that is opened or closed when a set temperature is exceeded
-
Magnetic field (see also Hall Effect in
semiconductors)
- Magnetometer, Gauss meter
- Humidity
-
Electromagnetic, light
- Photo resistor – Light dependent resistor (LDR)
Antennas
Antennas transmit or receive radio waves
- Elemental dipole
- Yagi
- Phased array
- Loop antenna
- Parabolic dish
- Log-periodic dipole array
- Biconical
- Feedhorn
Assemblies, modules
Multiple electronic components assembled in a device that is in itself used as a component
- Oscillator
- Display devices
- Filter
Prototyping aids
Electromechanical
A quartz crystal (left) and a crystal oscillator
Piezoelectric devices, crystals, resonators
Passive components that use piezoelectric effect:
-
Components that use the effect to generate or
filter high frequencies
- Crystal – a ceramic crystal used to generate precise frequencies (See the Modules class below for complete oscillators)
- Ceramic resonator – Is a ceramic crystal used to generate semi-precise frequencies
- Ceramic filter – Is a ceramic crystal used to filter a band of frequencies such as in radio receivers
- surface acoustic wave (SAW) filters
-
Components that use the effect as mechanical
transducers.
- Ultrasonic motor – Electric motor that uses the piezoelectric effects
- For piezo buzzers and microphones, see the Transducer class below
Microelectromechanical systems
Terminals and connectors
Devices to make electrical connection
Cable assemblies
Electrical cables with connectors or terminals at their ends
Switches
Components that can pass current ("closed") or break the current ("open"):
-
Switch
– Manually operated switch
- Electrical description: SPST, SPDT, DPST, DPDT, NPNT (general)
- Technology: slide switches, toggle switches, rocker switches, rotary switches, pushbutton switches
- Keypad – Array of pushbutton switches
- DIP switch – Small array of switches for internal configuration settings
- Footswitch – Foot-operated switch
- Knife switch – Switch with unenclosed conductors
- Micro switch – Mechanically activated switch with snap action
- Limit switch – Mechanically activated switch to sense limit of motion
- Mercury switch – Switch sensing tilt
- Centrifugal switch – Switch sensing centrifugal force due to rate of rotation
- Relay or contactor – Electro-mechanically operated switch (see also solid state relay above)
- Reed switch – Magnetically activated switch
- Thermostat – Thermally activated switch
- Humidistat – Humidity activated switch
- Circuit breaker – Switch opened in response to excessive current: a resettable fuse
- Disconnector – Switch used in high- and medium-voltage applications for maintenance of other devices or isolation of circuits
- Transfer switch – Switch that toggles a load between two sources
Protection devices
Passive components that protect circuits from excessive currents or voltages:
- Fuse – over-current protection, one time use
- Circuit breaker – resettable fuse in the form of a mechanical switch
- Resettable fuse or PolySwitch – circuit breaker action using solid state device
- Ground-fault protection or residual-current device – circuit breaker sensitive to mains currents passing to ground
- Metal oxide varistor (MOV), surge absorber, TVS – Over-voltage protection
- Inrush current limiter – protection against initial Inrush current
- Gas discharge tube – protection against high voltage surges
- Spark gap – electrodes with a gap to arc over at a high voltage
- Lightning arrester – spark gap used to protect against lightning strikes
- Recloser – automatic switch that opens on an overcurrent (fault) condition, then closes to check if the fault is cleared, and repeats this process a specified number of times before maintaining the open position until it is manually closed
- Arc-fault circuit interrupter – circuit breaker that protects against arcs
- Network protector – protective device that disconnects a distribution transformer when energy flow reverses direction
- Magnetic starter – electromechanical switch used in motors
Mechanical accessories
Other
Obsolete
- Carbon amplifier (see Carbon microphones used as amplifiers)
- Carbon arc (negative resistance device)
- Dynamo (historic rf generator)
- Coherer
Standard symbols
Main article: Electronic symbol
On a circuit diagram, electronic devices are represented by conventional symbols. Reference designators are applied to the symbols to identify the components.
Related Articles and Tutorials:
- Circuit design
- Circuit diagram
- Operational amplifier
- 7400-series integrated circuits
- E-series of preferred numbers
- Lumped element model
- Counterfeit electronic components
- Electrical element
- Electronic mixer
- Electronic components' Datasheets
- IEEE 315-1975
- Solid-state electronics
- History of electronic engineering
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